Sugar Free Essays

Sugar is a common name of substances that are white, soluble in water, fermentable and generally sweet, containing carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in its composition, extracted from the juice or starch of the roots and roots of many plants such as sugarcane, sugar beet, carrot, maize, date, grape, wheat, and potatoes. Sugar has various types such as sucrose, lactose, maltose, laevulose, fructose, glucose, and starch. Sucrose from sugar beet and sugar cane is the sugar that used in daily life. We will write a custom essay sample on Sugar or any similar topic only for you Order Now Aside from the sugar we take with fruits, vegetables and natural foods, added sugar is the main cause of many health problems. The main focuses of this article will be the damages sugar causes to our physical and mental health along with the why and how to quit sugar. Effects on Physical Health All forms of sugar such as corn syrup, honey, maple syrup affect the body somehow. The body cannot handle a very high amount of processed sugar. The basic organs are severely damaged by the consumption of this poor-quality sugar. Sugar alone is not a group of food itself. However, as expected, sugar is present in most foods by itself and does not contain any nutrients, proteins, fats and enzymes, and is the only empty calorie structure. There is no safe quantification of added sugar. Only natural sugar in fruits and vegetables is balanced with vitamins, fibers and enzymes, so the properties of fruits and vegetables slow down sugar digestion and help the body. However, added sugar does not provide any benefit. Sugar, the trigger of many chronic illnesses, is found in the abundance of packaged foods, all kinds of pastries and sweetened drinks. In particular, health problems that are caused by the loss of sugar are frequently encountered in people who are constantly consuming intensively since childhood. Among the damages of sugar, the disorder of blood sugar balance comes first. Sugar consumption which causes excessive secretion of the insulin hormone that makes blood sugar balance, causes the blood sugar to fall again due to such high insulin, which leads to many troubles. It is also known that this effect of sugar, which reduces the resistance of the body and makes all disease and disorders more open, is triggered by a long irreversible process. As the consumption of sugar increases, more fat accumulates in the tissues and these fat tissues, which gradually cover the internal organs, also prevent the functioning of the organs. As a result, there are serious consequences from heart and vascular diseases to fatty liver, cancer, obesity and dysfunction in the organs. How to cite Sugar, Papers

Sample Assignment with Chicago Referencing Style

Introduction Obesity has emerged as the most pressing nutritional problem facing the developed world. This trend has occurred over a relatively short period of time; in the United States, it appears to have begun in the last quarter of the 20th century. The epidemic in children followed shortly thereafter. The most recent data (19992000) from national surveys in the United States suggest that almost two thirds of the adult population is overweight, and almost one third is obese. In children, current estimates (19992000) put the prevalence of overweight at 15%, a threefold increase over the past 30 years. Although this epidemic has spared no subgroup of the population and has been documented in individuals of all ages and racial/ethnic and socioeconomic subgroups, the problem is greatest in minority populations and among persons living in poverty. Obesity is a global public health problem, affecting virtually every region of the world with the exception of sub-Saharan Africa. Discussion Identification The World Health Organization (2000) defines obesity as a condition of abnormal or excess accumulation of adipose tissue (body fat) to an extent that an individual's health may be impaired. Because the precise measurement of adipose tissue requires invasive laboratory measures, in the population context, a simpler measure on which to base an obesity definition is required. Although imperfect, the Body Mass Index (BMI), defined as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared, has been adopted by consensus in the United States by the National Institutes of Health (1998) and the Centers; for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and internationally by WHO (2000). Consensus definitions of overweight and obesity have been set at 25 (overweight) and 30 (obesity), with severity classes of obesity defined as follows: overweight, 25.0 to 29.9; Class I obesity, 30.0 to 34.9; Class II obesity, 35.0 to 39.9; and Class III obesity, 40.0+. The WHO (2000) terminology differs slightly, but the cutoff points are the same. In growing children, in whom weight and height are both changing (and at different rates), the definition of obesity is inherently more complicated. Although no universally agreed on standard exists for assessing overweight and obesity in children and adolescents, there is a growing consensus that BMI should be adopted as an indirect measure of adiposity for children and adolescents, as well. Because BMI varies substantially by age and gender during childhood and adolescence, the specific BMI cutoffs used to classify obesity must be gender- and age-specific and must be referenced against a standard. In the United States, the standard used is the CDC Revised Growth Reference. Internationally, several standards, including one based on a pooled international sample are also in use. Several periods in development have been proposed as critical periods in the development of persistent obesity and its comorbid consequences. These include the prenatal period (when intrauterine exposures may influence adiposity), early childhood, and adolescence. Some evidence suggests that breast-feeding may protect against later obesity. Likelihood of persistence in adulthood of obesity from childhood is related both to age at onset and severity. Sequelae Childhood obesity has a number of immediate, intermediate, and long-term health consequences. These include classic cardiovascular risk factors, such as high blood pressure, abnormal blood lipid levels, and impaired glucose tolerance. Respiratory conditions include sleep-disordered breathing. In addition, early menarche and menstrual abnormalities are linked to overweight. Of particular concern is the emergence of type 2 diabetes, once considered an adult-onset disease, as a disease of childhood. The psychological impact may represent one of the most damaging effects of obesity given that stigmatization and social isolation may result in lower self-esteem and depression. In a recently replicated classic study, children were asked to rank order a series of drawings of children with various handicaps (crutches, wheelchair, missing a hand, facial disfigurement, obesity) based on which child they would like best. The obese child was ranked last irrespective of the ranking child's sex, ra ce, socioeconomic status, living environment, and own disability. In another study, ratings of quality of life for children with obesity were similar to those of children undergoing chemotherapy for cancer. Although obesity in adulthood that has been present from childhood may carry an additional burden due to increased severity, much adult obesity arises through adult weight gain. The health consequences of obesity present in adulthood are enormous, both in magnitude and impact on quality of life. In developing its clinical guidelines, the NIH report identified an extensive list of health conditions for which obesity increased risk. These include hypertension, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea and respiratory problems, many cancers, and depression. The number of deaths per year in the United States attributable to obesity has been estimated at about 300,000. Risk Factors In all persons, child or adult, obesity arises due to energy imbalance: When energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, most of the excess calories are stored as adipose tissue. To give rise to obesity, energy imbalance must occur over a long period of time and likely reflects a combination of factors. Individual behaviors, environmental factors, and heredity, singly and in combination, contribute to the development of obesity. The rapidity with which the obesity epidemic emerged rules out simple genetic explanations. The current environment in the United States has been characterized as obesogenic, meaning that it promotes high energy intakes and low energy expendituresthe energy imbalance that gives rise to weight gain. Modern industrialized societies provide abundant, relatively inexpensive food; modern life is organized to reduce energy expenditure at work and at home, through technology and urbanization. For a species that evolved to store fat in times of plenty in order to survi ve in leaner times, many individuals are genetically susceptible to gain weight in the current environment. Excessive energy intake is a primary risk factor for the development of childhood and adult obesity, although the specific aspects of intake responsible are controversial. Dietary factors, such as diet composition, energy density, fat intake, fruit and vegetable consumption, snacks, sugar-rich foods, and soft drinks, have all been identified in association with obesity. Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables can help reduce the intake of dietary fat and calories because they are naturally low in fat and energy density compared with other foods. Despite current recommendations that individuals over the age of 2 years consume 2 to 4 servings of fruits and 3 to 5 servings of vegetables daily, children and adolescents eat an average of only 3.6 servings of fruits and vegetables per day, and fried potatoes account for a large proportion of those servings. A number of other dietary variables, including soft drinks, snacking, portion sizes, and infant feeding have also been linked t o childhood obesity. Studies suggest that the increased consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks, snack foods (which are often high in fat or/and sugar), and large-sized portions of foods have contributed to the increase in energy intakes. Physical Activity Reduced physical activity may be the most important factor in explaining the increase of obesity over the past two decades. Physical activity among U.S. youth is in decline, with nearly half of young people aged 12 to 21 reporting that they do not engage in vigorous physical activity regularly and one fourth reporting no vigorous physical activity. Whereas leisure time physical activity has increased in men and remained constant in women over the past four decades in the United States, activity associated with work and home life has declined over the same period. Sedentary behavior and inactivity, such as watching television and playing video/computer games, also are contributory factors. Gortmaker et al. (1996) reported an adjusted-odds ratio (OR) for obesity of 8.3 for adolescents who watched TV more than 5 hours per day compared with those who watched 0 to 2 hours. Compelling evidence comes from intervention studies, which show that reducing TV viewing time can help prevent childh ood obesity. Adults in a trial of maintenance following weight loss sustained their losses best when physical activity was high and television viewing was low. TV watching may promote obesity by reducing physical activity, lowering metabolic rate, and increasing energy intake. The latter may occur due to the fact that TV viewing may be associated with snacking and may moderate eating habits generally through greater exposure to advertising of foods high in added sugars and fat or by conveying mixed messages about lifestyle and health in the content of advertisements. TV viewing is a major source of inactivity among Americans. Screen time, a summary measure of time spent viewing television and videos and engaged in computer-based activity, represents the largest proportion of nonsleep, nonschool time for youth. Conclusions Obesity has emerged as the major nutritional problem facing the pediatric and adult populations worldwide. The etiology of obesity is multifactorial and includes individual risk factors, genetic influences, and environmental effectors. The severity of the problem, in terms of immediate and long-term health consequences to physical and psychological health, suggests it is a problem that will dominate the public health agenda in the 21st century.

Effectiveness of Employee Retention Strategies †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Effectiveness of Employee Retention Strategies. Answer: Introduction The case study for McDonald's business has been considered to understand the business strategies with respect to the talent. The employees are the most important assets of any business because they convert all other assets/ resources into revenue. It is important for the business to hire, retain, and manage the employees with the right skills, knowledge, capabilities and aptitude (Business Insider, 2017).Talent management is an important element of human resourcing procedures, programs and approaches used for identifying, assessing, developing and retaining the talent. The business strategy of my Donald focuses ongrowth andoperational excellence so it can be stated that McDonald's make use of the specialisation strategy. As per the given case study businessrealisesthat people are its most significant assets. The business makes use ofthisworkers and creates its strategies in such a manner that these workers focus on providinghighlevel of customersatisfaction.It focuses ondeliveryof cleanliness, quality goods, fastservicesand value to the clients (Henebery, 2017). This is the socialisation business strategy where the business lays stress on particular kind of customer strategy on the basis of fulfilling that particular segment needs. The clientswho cometo McDonald's prefer Great food,attentionof the staff members, clean restaurant and fair pricing. Will the strategic needs, the staff have to be nicewiththe clients and there has to be consistency in the food prepared. It is important that the workers ensure cleanliness in the outlet. All these strategic needs have to be fulfilled by the staff members ofMcDonald's thereforeit is important that the right kind of employees is hired for bringing such vision to actuality. The success of McDonald'sis dueto its capacity of hiring right individuals who apply the same vision for the clients. Thehigh qualityemployees provide McDonald's with a competitive advantage in the market, by application of the Business strategy discussed above. As the staff's satisfaction forms the basis of attaining competitive advantage, it is important that the strategy which is followed by the workers must be carefully considered (Corporate.mcdonalds.com, 2017). It is necessary that the people who are hired by McDonald's are highly customer oriented and they also need to be trained on the same perspective. Thisstrategy leadsto the great stuffing and since the employees are promoted from within theorganisation thereforethey get motivated to stay forlongterm with the same business (Structured Orientation for New Graduates, 2004). McDonald's not only hiresgreat people but also maintains that the talent by use ofit principalknown as "people province". It will use its workers and provide them with the needed skills, tools andequipmentswhich are needed for providing the customers with great services, high level of accuracy at work and Consistency. The business identifies and tracks the people aspects which haveimpacton the business performance (Gandhi Arora, 2015). Therefore McDonald's is capable of evaluating and continuously improving the alignment among the staffing and business strategies. Alignment of business, Human resource and staffing strategies of McDonalds As stated above, McDonald's has to pursue two business strategies which are the operational excellence and growth. For achieving this, it is important that the workers provide support to the business. These workers need to have great communication and customer servicing skills. Even though the workers which are hired by McDonald's are highly skilled, still for the alignment of business strategies, human resources and staffing, McDonald's has to provide the staff members with regular training and development. It takes appropriate measures for retaining the talent. The management processes a clear understanding and knowledge regarding the attitude,skill setthat is needed by its workers. And in order to stay ahead in these as well, McDonald's has created its own staffing strategy. In terms of human resourcing, the aim of McDonald's is to be one of the top employers in the society and forthisit provides the workers with a great workingenvironment. The workers are promoted from within the organisation thereforeencouraged to show great performance at work. These practices make the employees have a feeling of belongingness with the business and also make them feel as a part of McDonald's. By following the strategies, McDonald'sis ableto retain talented people because the potential candidates stay with the business in the long run as they hopeto getpromoted to the higher level within the organisation (Schweyer, 2013). The initial two steps used by McDonald's for gaining the competitive advantage were restructuring of the staff'sperformance development system (PDS) for all the staffs and using a talent review procedure for the staffs. This business has also set up different improved development programmes for the workers at all the levels. One of the examples of such programme is known as "leaders at McDonald's program (LAMP)". The business has also started with the leadership Institute (leadership developing programs. With the initial rolling out of policy for performance development system, in 2001 McDonald's made a decision of practising the same in three major segments. These segments were:t and change (Hatum and Preve, 2015). Disadvantage development was started in McDonald's for promoting the advancement of exit YouTube talent and creating the development opportunities for new workers. This strategy laid stress on talent and diversity management in McDonalds. The launch of "LAMP "program was done for creating innovative ideas to bring changes in the perception of participants and to apply a worldwide approach in turning to be The business which is capable of retaining top talent (Reed, 2012). The focus of the strategy had been on development of great potential talent for turning to be a future leader and making the performance to be better for business growth. The main aim of this strategy was to expand the competency and acceptance of employees to turn to be future leaders (Goldsmith and Carter, 2010). When the people are promoted from within the business then there is a decrease in the time needed for newly promoted managers and achieving faster outcomes, therefore the business stands out to be further effective for development and attainment of top talent. This also helps in improving the diversity profile at the management level. With the start of McDonald's leadership Institute and the launch of global leadership development programmes, the aim was to develop the skills among the workers so that they can be ready to get remote it up to director level (Noe, 2013). This institute and program are related with the exceptional development support, trainings, learning seminars and development sessions. Through the global leadership development programmes, the existing employees were provided with detailed overview of the leadership roles and responsibilities and they were prepared for their future roles. This way the individual contributors also got an expanded base for networking with their peer groups. The promoted workers show their gratitude towards the business by providing the clients withgreatlevel of customer service (Lewis and Sequeira, 2012). Similarly the potential workers, who wish to getpromotion, also focus on the client satisfaction, which is the key for attaining competitive advantage. This way the business strategy of McDonald's has been aligned to its staffing and human resourcing strategies. Possible talent-linked threats to the competitive advantage of McDonalds The key possible talent related threats which can harm the competitive advantage of McDonald's would behighturnover of workers and that aggravated by the time when the business find it complicated to hire people particularly in the younger age bracket (Yamamoto, 2011). Since the McDonald's tries to promote the employees from within the organisation as a part of its retention strategy, therefore it would lack the younger task force and therefore it might lackthe newtalent, harming its competitive advantage (Gberevbie, 2008). Due to the tight labour markets, the business would also be facing an issue of huge costs linked with the training of employees and if the employee retention problem continues then this cost can be amultiple times (Bais, 2012). For improving its future and retaining its brand image as a great employer, McDonald's can actually apply the different strategies for attracting the largest labour pools i.e. the students or teenage segments. The students can be hired as trainees and provided with training which can help the business to retain those are for the long run. This would help the business to getthe newtalent and fresh skills. TheGuests model of HRMcan be applied to McDonald's. This model will help the business in seeking the employs engagement in terms of achieving business goals and it will also focus on the fulfilment of needs of the staff members (Aitalieva and Panasyuk, 2016). By use of this model, McDonalds will turn more flexible. This model can be linked with the commitment of staff members and their high performance levels rather than approvals. The major focus of HR functions in this business would be able to successfully attain the predefined aims (Shabib-Ul-Hasan, 2012). This would be done by improvement in the skills and abilities of the workers. Since the employees are highly valued in this organisation therefore the employee participation would be useful for cultivating a trusted and healthy work environment. Practices of HRM at McDonald's revolve around recruiting, selecting, workers, job design, reward and recognition for the improvement and motivation of the performances of workers.It is also suggested that the business exercises flexibility at the workplace by which McDonald's would be able to keep the workers are motivated. Motivated workers would be putting in extra efforts for giving their best performances and successful accomplishment of their work targets (Fast Company, 2017). This way the business would be able to retain its goal of having competitive advantage and this flexibility will make the workers empowered to prove their proficiency. Moreover by practising the flexible working, the team building activities want to be hindered. Flexibility at workplace won't be useful for only the employees rather it would be used by the management for enhancing the productivity of the business because they would be able to provide the workers with trusted, healthy and sound work environm ent (Conlow and Watsabaugh, 2013). Since the employees would be free to choose their working schedule is therefore there would be high level of satisfaction inculcated among them which would consequently encourage them in delivering the desirable performances. By offering the flexible working practices, the craving of McDonald's to hire more experienced and skilled people at different hierarchies will be fulfilled. For example, on the Christmas eve or during festive season, when there is more footfall expected that the outlets then part-time workers can be hired so that the client demand is fulfilled easily with the maximisation of profits (Clinton Foundation, 2017). The people can get support by working withMcDonald's,if the jobs are offered with flexibility and they haveoptionto choose their timings. Thiscan be used to retain the existingpeople, and others can also join the organisation as part-timers and support their living or education. This saves a brand image will also be created for McDonald's and simultaneously it would be able to retain its existing staff, with opportunities forthemtogrow and develop. Conclusion Business strategy for McDonald's is focused on customer satisfaction and therefore it hires talented people who can help the business in maintaining the trust which the customer is having McDonald's, all over the world (Training Magazine, 2017). The strategy of competitive advantage through customer satisfaction can be achieved by keeping the staff members satisfied and retaining the skilled are talented workers, who can add value to theclientsexperiences. It is important to hiretalentedpool of people, but it is further necessary to retain that talent within the organisation. This case study has been utilised for understanding the need of talent management for any business to stay competitive. References Aitalieva, V. and Panasyuk, M. (2016). THE SPECIFICS OF CORPORATE CULTURE MANAGEMENT IN A FOREIGN SUBDIVISION OF MCDONALDS COMPANY.Business Strategies, (11), p.1. Bais, D. (2012). Employee Retention Management:some Issues.International Journal of Scientific Research, 1(4), pp.22-24. Business Insider. (2017).McDonald's is about to unveil a huge plan to save its business - here are 8 things investors need to hear. [online] Available at: https://www.businessinsider.in/McDonalds-is-about-to-unveil-a-huge-plan-to-save-its-business-here-are-8-things-investors-need-to-hear/articleshow/47130718.cms [Accessed 28 Sep. 2017]. Clinton Foundation. (2017).Talent for Tomorrow: How McDonalds is Redefining Employee Education and Training. [online] Available at: https://www.clintonfoundation.org/blog/2014/08/12/talent-tomorrow-how-mcdonalds-redefining-employee-education-and-training [Accessed 28 Sep. 2017]. Conlow, R. and Watsabaugh, D. (2013).Superstar leadership. Pompton Plains, NJ: The Career Press, Inc. Corporate.mcdonalds.com. (2017).Leadership Development - McDonald's Training :: McDonalds. [online] Available at: https://corporate.mcdonalds.com/mcd/corporate_careers/training_and_development/leadership_development_career_pathing.html [Accessed 28 Sep. 2017]. Fast Company. (2017).Making Over McDonalds. [online] Available at: https://www.fastcompany.com/1686594/making-over-mcdonalds [Accessed 28 Sep. 2017]. Gandhi Arora, R. (2015).Talent Retention. Saarbru?cken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Gberevbie, D. (2008). Employee Retention Strategies And Organizational Performance.IFE PsychologIA, 16(2). Goldsmith, M. and Carter, L. (2010).Best practices in talent management. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Hatum, A. and Preve, L. (2015). Managing Talent Risk.Harvard Deusto Business Research, 4(1). Henebery, B. (2017).Inside McDonalds talent strategy. [online] LD. Available at: https://www.ldphub.com/general-news/inside-mcdonalds-talent-strategy-238465.aspx [Accessed 28 Sep. 2017]. Lewis, A. and Sequeira, A. (2012). Effectiveness of Employee Retention Strategies in Industry.SSRN Electronic Journal. Noe, R. (2013).Human resource management. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Reed, D. (2012). Leveraging Your Employees' Values to Retain Staff and Develop Leaders.Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, 2012(1), pp.544-548. Schweyer, A. (2013).Talent management systems. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Shabib-Ul-Hasan, S. (2012). Managing Talent; Twenty Commandments about Talent Management.IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 2(6), pp.31-36. Structured Orientation for New Graduates. (2004).Journal for Nurses in Staff Development (JNSD), 20(3), pp.125-126. Training Magazine. (2017).McDonalds Recipe for Success. [online] Available at: https://trainingmag.com/content/mcdonald%E2%80%99s-recipe-success [Accessed 28 Sep. 2017]. Yamamoto, H. (2011). The relationship between employee benefit management and employee retention.The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(17), pp.3550-3564.

Tools and Techniques of Organizational Change †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Tools and Techniques of Organizational Change. Answer: Introduction The ABC Pvt. Ltd is currently in preparation to undergo a change in the existing divisions with the introduction of a new division that provides leadership consultancy services and is also considering plans to merge with its competitor named XYZ Ltd. Thus, this report aims to analyze and recommend the various essential steps before the implementation of change management in ABC Pvt Ltd. The action research plan for ABC Ltd. is participative in nature and requires the involvement of employees from all divisions of the organization in order to generate successful results arising from the changes in the organization (Goetsch Davis 2014). The steps that are involved in this process are as follows:- Planning stage- The planning for gathering of data and feedback from the employees working in different sections of the organization would help in analyzing the various opinions of the employees regarding the merging of ABC Ltd. with XYZ Ltd. and introduction of a new division for providing leadership consultancy services (Hayes, 2014). Action stage- The feedback obtained from the employees would assist in the implementation of the action plan, revealing the steps that are to be adopted in order to provide a better understanding of the consequences resulting from the change. Results phase- This step is related directly to the second stage and requires collection of data again in order to gain insight regarding the changes in behaviors and attitudes of the staffs that have resulted from the implementation of the action plan. Recommendations In order to conduct an action research or diagnosis of the current situation faced by ABC Ltd, the following steps may be considered:- The use of questionnaires and surveys is done in order to understand the attitude of the employees as well as consumers towards the change management approach and would reveal their thoughts and opinions regarding what can be improved. The analysis of performance of the employees would allow the existing employees to apply for the best positions in leadership consultancy department, which the organization is planning to introduce. Application of Change Management Model ABC Ltd. should be applying the change management model introduced by Kurt Lewin. Unfreeze- The Company is facing the change of adding up a new leadership consultancy service with its competitor XYZ Ltd. This stage depicts that ABC Ltd. is prepared enough to accept this change as this is essential for its growth (Cameron and Green 2015). Change- In this stage the change is totally accepted and employees working in ABC Ltd. have started to adopt this change. Refreeze- In this stage when the change is accepted and implemented, it is ensured that this change is applied in the operations of ABC Ltd. Conclusion The conclusion may be drawn stating that these are the necessary requirements for the purpose of conducting a change management in a medium sized business organization. References Cameron, E. and Green, M., 2015.Making sense of change management: A complete guide to the models, tools and techniques of organizational change. Kogan Page Publishers. Goetsch, D.L. and Davis, S.B., 2014.Quality management for organizational excellence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: pearson. Hayes, J., 2014.The theory and practice of change management. Palgrave Macmillan.

An Introduction to the I Am Unique Sample Essay For Admissions

An Introduction to the I Am Unique Sample Essay For AdmissionsThe I Am Unique sample essay for admissions is a part of the Extraordinary Measures curriculum. This curriculum consists of five courses that are designed to help college students create extraordinary educational and personal profiles. The test that is provided in each course is a timed quiz in which the student has to answer an essay about themselves. This is what makes this one of the most challenging essays that you can write.The first section of the I Am Unique sample essay for admissions is a question on race and ethnicity. Students have to compare and contrast different races and ethnicities in order to prove how their point stands apart from other applicants. The students also have to write an essay that explains how they fit into the student body of an Ivy League university.The next section of the essay for admissions is about athletic prowess. In this section, students have to find the best way to defend their opi nions. They also have to defend their ways of being strong and athletic.The final section of the I Am Unique sample essay for admissions is about writing. In this section, students have to analyze, write about everything. It is important that the students know what they are writing and how they are supposed to go about defending their points.In the first paragraph of the I Am Unique sample essay for admissions, students have to define their character. This section will be divided into three different parts. These parts include describing their strengths, defining their values and identifying their passions.The I Am Unique sample essay for admissions must stand out from the rest. The students have to write an essay that is not like the other essays that were submitted. In fact, they have to do the opposite of the normal strategy.The students have to use the uniqueness of their uniqueness and showcase the uniqueness of their admission process. This requires students to choose a theme that is different from the other students. Students have to think of something interesting that can make their life better.This is one of the difficult aspects of admissions essays. The students have to find something different from what other students submitted. The students also have to write a research paper. In this case, students must describe why they are the most unique.

Why We Should Keep The Drinking Age At 21 Essay Example For Students

Why We Should Keep The Drinking Age At 21 Essay Why We Should Keep the Drinking Age at Twenty-oneBy Barry T. HellmanEnglish 116, section 6Dr. Budler11 May 2000 Imagine winning the State Basketball Championship. You get back to your house with a few friends and feel a party is in order, so you start drinking a few beers after your parents go to bed. Someone suggests that you drive somewhere to get rid of the empty cans. ?Yes, thats not a bad idea?, so you all pile into the car and take off. A few hours later, your parents receive a telephone call to come down to the station. There has been a terrible accident, and they must identify the body. This is the one phone call all parents dread. This true story is detailed in the Germantown, Tennessee high school newspaper. Stories like this compel me to believe that the legal drinking age should be kept at twenty-one. We will write a custom essay on Why We Should Keep The Drinking Age At 21 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Almost every state set a legal drinking age of twenty-one, the legal voting age at the time, after prohibition was repealed. Between 1970 and 1975, twenty-nine states lowered the voting age from twenty-one to eighteen, twenty-nine states also lowered their drinking age to eighteen or nineteen. During the late seventies, studies showed that traffic crashes had drastically increased after lowering the drinking age. Once this was announced publicly, many groups created a movement to increase the minimal drinking age, and sixteen states responded. The Uniform Drinking Act was passed in 1984. This strongly encouraged the remaining thirteen states to raise their drinking age. If the states would not agree to do so by 1987, the government said that it would cut highway funding (Encyclopedia of Alcohol and Drugs). Many would argue that when the drinking age were set at twenty-one, there is an unavoidably huge increase in alcohol use when youths, turning twenty-one, ?make up for lost time.? However, a study done by Alexander Wagenaar and PM OMalley found that when the minimum drinking age was twenty-one, there was a lower use of alcohol after they turn twenty-one. One of the largest arguments in favor of lowering the drinking age is the use of Europe as a comparison. Where as in Europe, where there isnt a prescribed legal age for drinking, the age for obtaining a drivers license is eighteen. Sixteen is the average age for obtaining a license. This lower age for driving in combination with the lowered drinking age incurs a rise in traffic accidents and even death. Drinking before twenty-one causes more deaths than illnesses. On the other hand, those countries have their share of alcohol problems. The rate of alcohol-related diseases such as cirrhosis to the liver is the same, if not higher, as in the United States. Also drunk driving among youth in Europe is lower, but only because the legal driving age in most European countries is higher. Furthermore the use of public transportation is greater in Europe, where as in the United States fewer people take advantage of public transportation. Public transportation is either frowned upon or not avai lable. It is also argued that even though the legal drinking age is at twenty-one, many youths still can easily obtain and drink alcohol, so the current drinking age doesnt work. It stands to reason to conclude that if the drinking age were lowered to eighteen, even younger children would be using alcohol. This therefore, would have adverse affects on our society, not a positive affect. Because its illegal for people under twenty-one, many of those people dont drink. Lowering the drinking age would increase alcohol problems among teens, even at an earlier age. (Wagenaar and co. article, page 2)My opinion is further supported by the Correlation between underage drinking and alcohol abuse. Scientists of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism have said that teens that begin drinking before the age of fifteen are four times more likely to become alcoholics. The same institute also found that alcohol abuse doubles, in those who start drinking before the age of fifteen compared to those who first begin drinking at age twenty-one. Continuing, they found that twenty-five percent of those who began drinking before the age of seventeen went on to become alcoholics. .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a , .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .postImageUrl , .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a , .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a:hover , .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a:visited , .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a:active { border:0!important; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a:active , .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf339af814940b8407cb8161b9caddc8a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Portrayal of Reality in Great Gatsby EssayFurthermore, most studies show an increase in traffic accidents, and even deaths, among youths when the drinking age was lower. The Encyclopedia of Alcohol and Drugs also states that the result of lowering the drinking age caused a five to twenty percent increase in the number of fatal injury-causing crashes ?likely to involve alcohol, such as single-vehicle accidents occurring late at night? Alcohol use is typically reported in one-fifth to two-thirds of these problems; youth drowning, vandalism, assaults, suicides, and teenage pregnancies (Toomey, Rosenfeld, and Wagenaar 3). Besides accidents, there is also an association between alcohol abuse and suicide. Between one-third and two-thirds of adolescent suicide victims have a measurable blood alcohol level. A study of suicides from 1970 to 1990, done by Johanna Birckmeyer and David Hemenway, found that the suicide rates of eighteen to twenty year olds living in states with a drinking age of eighteen was eight percent higher than in states with a drinking age of twenty-one. The last point to consider is that when the drinking age was lowered to eighteen or nineteen an increase in traffic accidents occurred. Drinking before twenty-one causes more death than illnesses. It seems to me that there is little valid argument against leaving the legal drinking age at twenty-one. Auto accidents, suicides, illnesses early drivers licences varying cultures, and alcoholism are all reasons in favor of maintaining a legal drinking age of twenty-one Too much, too soon, kills!Works CitedBirckmayer, Johanna; Hememway, David. ?Minimum-age drinking laws and youth suicide, 1970-1990.? American Journal of Public Health (1999). 29 April 2000. Bower, B. ?Alcoholism shows its youthful side.? Science news 26 April 00Quigley, Loria, et al. Drinking among young adults. Alcohol Health and Research World. April 00:p185-191. Sherman, Laura. ?Tragedy After An Enormous Accomplishment.? Germantown High School News. 4-15-99Toomey, Rosenfield, and Wager. Encyclopedia of Alcohol and Drugs. New York 1995Toomey, Rosenfield, and Wager. The minimum legal drinking age: history, effectiveness, and ongoing debate. Alcohol Health and Research World, 4-28-00 p213(5)Wagenaar,Alexander, et al. Deterring sales and provision of alcohol to minors: a study of enforcement in 295 countires in four states. Public health Reports. April 00: p185-191. Bibliographyalready in the paper, the works citedEnglish Essays

The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essay Example

The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essay The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Nigel Pain, Isabell Koske OECD Meeting of Heads of National Economic Research Organisations at OECD Headquarters June 15 2007, Paris. Over the past decades international economic integration has proceeded rapidly. Trade in Goods and Services Exports plus imports to GDP (current US$) Foreign Direct Investment Assets plus liabilities to GDP (current US$) 300% 250% 200% 150% 100% 50% World OECD 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% OECD World Non-OECD Non-OECD 0% 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 0% 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Globalisation has been proceeding for many years. The pace of economic integration has been particularly marked since the mid1990s – suggesting structural changes in the impact may have occurred. 2 2 New developments that may have affected the impact of globalisation on OECD economies The marked increase in the extent and pace of integration since the mid-1990s The integration of China and India into the global economy – significantly boosting global labour supply Development of international production networks: the fragmentation of production across borders via international outsourcing and offshoring; international trade in tasks Foreign competition spreading into previously sheltered sectors and occupations via ICT-enabled offshoring and market entry. Financial globalisation Such developments, common to all OECD economies, have prompted a re-assessment of the impact of globalisation. Globalisation now affects particular tasks and occupations as 3 3 well as firms/sectors. The Globalisation and Structural Adjustment Project 2005-07 This had three main components: The macroeconomic effects of globalisation labour markets, inflation, policy challenges from the future evolution of globalisation. The sectoral impact of trade on labour markets The effects of the outsourcing of business services The project examined the policy challenges from: The spread of global trade production networks and IT-enabled global sourcing. The impact of non-OECD economies on commodity markets and competition pressures in the OECD. Financial globalisation. A final report was provided to Ministers in May 2007 4 4 We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The current phase of globalisation has coincided with structural reforms in OECD labour markets The impact of globalisation is occurring against a background of widespread reforms to labour market institutions (see the Restated OECD Jobs Strategy) – for example: Reductions in product market and labour market regulations Activation of the unemployed Increased responsiveness of wage setting to supply/demand pressures Reductions in tax wedges All these affect wage and employment outcomes. Other things being equal, they should have acted to reduce structural unemployment. Attempts to quantify the impact of globalisation have to allow for other (potentially endogenous) sources of structural change. 5 5 The labour share of GDP has fallen, but real wages have grown robustly in most OECD countries. Labour Income Shares 0. 7 0. 65 0. 6 0. 55 0. 5 0. 45 0. 4 1980 1 2 OECD economies (weighted average) Real Compensation per Employee 150 140 OECD1 USA JPN FRA 110 100 DEU 1980 1 Income share of labour 1 130 120 Income share of employees2 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Dependent employees and self-employed. Dependent employees (private and government sectors). Weighted average; country coverage varies according to data availability. The decline in the labour share began before the mid-1990s. In accounting terms, the labour share decline is due to labour productivity rising faster than real wages. 6 6 Real wage growth over the past decade is not correlated with trade openness. 5% 4% GRC POL ISL CZE NOR TUR PRT SWE GBR USA FIN DNK NZL KOR AUS CAN FRA CHE AUT JPN ESP DEU ITA MEX SVK HUN IRL BEL NLD Real wage growth1 3% 2% 1% 0% -1% -2% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160% Trade openness2 1Annual averages, 1995 to most recent observation. 2Exports plus imports to GDP, average 1995 – 2006. 7 Real wage growth was somewhat stronger in countries where openness rose the fastest. 5% 4% GRC NOR PRT SWE ISL POL CZE HUN Real wage growth1 3% TUR IRL SVK GBR 2% USA NZL DNK FIN KOR FRA AUS CAN BEL 1% AUT CHE NLD JPN DEU 0% ITA ESP -1% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% MEX LUX 12% Change in trade openness2 averages, 1995 to most recent observation. 2Percenta ge point change in the ratio of exports plus imports to GDP, average 1995 – 2006. 1Annual 8 8 Despite real wage growth, earnings inequality has risen, especially in the top half of the distribution. Earnings inequality in OECD countries P90, P50, and P10 denote the 90th, 50th, and 10th percentiles of the distribution of earnings for full-time employees. Source: OECD Employment Outlook (2007), forthcoming. Wages of more skilled workers have risen relative to those of less skilled workers, though not in all countries. This is one source of political concerns about globalisation. 9 9 Possible labour market impacts of trade and international production networks Lower-skilled tasks can be moved to lower (unit) cost locations potential productivity gains for domestic industries rising trade will coincide with rising skill-related premia Substitution of employment between home and host locations is more likely for cost-saving investments and the larger the host relative to the home country. Possible implications include: Domestic labour demand is more sensitive to domestic wages Employment adjusts more rapidly to changes in desired labour demand (via output, real labour costs, technical change etc. ) Firms have an exit option which, even if not exercised, raises the relative bargaining power of employers. Impact on wage bargains will depend on the preferences of those involved the level at which bargaining takes place. 10 10 Foreign affiliate employment rose relative to domestic employment between 1992-2003 in all sectors in the G3 Ratio of U. S. Foreign Affiliate Employment to Employment in the U. S. (%) Business Services Financial Services Telecoms Transportation Trade Transport Equipment Electrical Optical Machinery Metals Chemicals Pulp Paper Textiles Food, Beverages Tobacco 0. 0 10. 0 20. 0 30. 0 40. 0 50. 0 60. 0 70. 0 2003 1992 There are marked differences across sectors. The data for Japan and Germany show a similar pattern to the US. 11 11 Empirical evidence from the GSA project (and IMF work) suggests globalisation is affecting the labour market. No evidence of aggregate impact on employment levels or growth. Globalisation is one factor contributing to the decline in the labour income share and the rising returns for skilled workers. But it only accounts for a small part of these trends. Technological change and changes in labour market institutions are more important. Evidence for some industries, especially in manufacturing, that globalisation raises the wage elasticity of labour demand: Outward FDI raises the long-run wage elasticity of labour demand (0. 8%1. 0%) Trade raises the short-run wage elasticity of labour demand (0. 2% in mid1980s 0. % early 2000s) For the US, employment growth in US-owned foreign affiliates has positive correlation with employment at home; for Japan, the correlation is negative (controlling for sales and costs). 12 12 Globalisation also has positive effects on productivity levels and growth in OECD economies. Greater specialisation in areas of comparative advantage. Better access to foreign kno wledge (inward and outward FDI). Using intermediate inputs produced offshore may boost home productivity growth (Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg, 2006) Benefits of enhanced competitive pressure in product markets. The OECD Growth Project found that a 10% pt increase in trade openness was associated with a 4% rise in income per capita. Work for GSA (for 9 global regions) found that enhanced openness raises the rate of convergence of GDP per capita to US levels. Labour market work for GSA found evidence that outward FDI and the international outsourcing of intermediate inputs can raise productivity in home economies. 13 Summary of labour market impacts of globalisation (from trade and FDI – migration will add to these) Globalisation is associated with rising living standards The benefits are not shared automatically by all workers Globalisation is one factor generating structural change The ongoing globalisation process is one factor helping to dampen wage inflation and reduce the labour income share. These may be one-time changes, albeit prolonged. The higher wage elasticity of labour demand raises potential gains in employment from labour-market reforms, but also raises the potential volatility of workers labour market outcomes. Labour market developments are becoming more closely linked with those in other countries. One channel for global factors to influence domestic cost growth. Increasingly important to put policies in place to help labour market adjustment in OECD economies. 14 There are reasons to believe that the labour market challenges could increase further. Vertical multinationals production fragmentation become more likely as trade and communication costs fall and as location becomes possible in countries with different factor endowments. China India have significant reserves of underemployed labour. OECD estimates suggest that up to 20% of occupations in the major economies are potentially offshorable (high ICT content). 15 Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures wage growth. 15 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 15 10 5 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 0 0. 5 1 Unemployment Gap (in %) 1. 5 2 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 10 30 Japan ?Total Compensation 25 per Employee (in %) 20 15 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 -2 -1 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 Unemployment Gap (in %) 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 Euro Area United Kingdom 16 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures unit cost growth. 15 ? ULC (in %) 15 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 30 25 20 15 ?ULC (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? ULC (in %) Japan ?ULC (in %) 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5 -2 -1 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 -1 -0. 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 5 6 7 Euro Area United Kingdom 17 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures inflation. 15 ? PCP (in %) 15 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 0 0. 5 1 Unemployment Gap (in %) 1. 5 2 ? PCP (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? PCP (in %) 30 25 20 15 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 -2 -1 10 5 0 Japan ?PCP (in %) 10 0 -1 -0. 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Euro Area United Kingdom 18 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the relationship between labour market pressures inflation. The short-run Phillips curve has become more horizontal over time, both for labour costs and for price inflation. Also apparent using the change rather than the level of inflation. Movements in the unemployment (and output) gap have smaller effects on inflation than before. This can reflect many factors – globalisation, other structural labour market changes, better anchored inflation expectations and changes in monetary policy frameworks. The flattening of the Phillips curve began before globalisation accelerated in the mid-1990s: Better anchored inflation expectations may be more important. The role of globalisation is an empirical matter. Competition could even make prices more responsive to activity. 19 The impact of globalisation on price inflation is examined in Pain, Koske and Sollie (2006). The analysis has three steps: Calculation of the direct impact of rising lower-cost imports from emerging economies on inflation rates in selected OECD economies using a simple accounting framework. Analysis of the impact of global economic conditions on oil and non-oil commodity prices. Empirical analysis of the wider impact of globalisation on consumer prices in 21 OECD economies, over 1980-2005 Test whether inflation dynamics changed in the mid-1990s. Quantification of the impact of globalisation on prices and inflation through a scenario analysis that distinguishes the impact of non-commodity and commodity import prices. 20 [1] Main findings of the accounting analysis: The combined impact effect of lower-cost imports from China and other dynamic Asian economies has reduced domestic inflation by 0. percentage points per annum in the United States (from 1996 to 2005); by 0. 3 percentage points per annum in the euro area (from 2000 to 2005). Calculations from a number of studies (Federal Reserve, ECB) suggest that imports from lower cost producers have pushed down non-commodity import price inflation by between 1 and 2 percentage points per annum over the last decade. 21 [2] Gl obalisation and commodity prices: empirical results. Strong GDP growth in the non-OECD economies since 2000 has been an important factor behind the recent growth of real oil prices and real metals prices. A scenario analysis of setting the growth rate of non-OECD economies equal to the (lower) growth rate of the OECD economies from 2000 onwards reveals that oil prices would have been 20-40% lower than the baseline in the fourth quarter of 2005; real metals prices would have been 10% lower than the baseline. This removes some, but not all of the strong growth in oil and metals prices over recent years. 22 [3] The price equation estimated jointly (SUR) for 21 OECD countries using quarterly data for 1980-2005 is: ? ln P = ? + i,t 0i ? ? SH M SH ? ln P ? M ? [1 ? M ln P ] ln C ? ? 1i ? i,t ? 1 1i i, t ? 1 i, t ? 1 1i i,t ? 1 i,t ? 1 ? ? 4 4 4 M + ? ? ? ln P C + ? GAP + ? ? ji ? ln Pi,t ? j + ? ? ji ? ln Pi,t ? j +? ji i,t ? j 3i i,t ? 1 it j =1 j=0 j =0 P, PM and C denote consumer prices (CED), import prices of goods plus services and domestic unit labour costs MSH denotes the import share of domestic demand (rolling regressions without this term showed a rise in ? 1 over time) GAP is th e domestic output gap Cross-equation parameter restrictions imposed if data permits ? 1 found to be significantly larger from 1995Q1 onwards 23 3] The impact of globalisation on price inflation The long-run influence of import prices on domestic consumer prices has risen since the mid-1990s. This reflects two factors: a rise in import penetration in OECD economies; the impact of import competition on competitors’ prices. The impact of import prices on domestic consumer prices is larger in small open economies. The cyclical sensitivity of inflation to domestic economic conditions declined between 1981-1994 and 1995-2005. No robust significant additional impact from the global output gap. Global conditions are already reflected in import prices). The separate commodity and consumer price findings are combined in a set of scenario analyses. These show that ex-ante inflationary pressures in most OECD economies would have been moderately higher in the absence of globalisation 24 Impact on consumer price inflation from removing globalisation effects 2000-05. Average percentage point difference per annum Commodity . Non-commodity Component . component . Japan Canada OECD United States United Kingdom Germany France Euro Area Italy Net effect -0. 4 -0. 2 0. 0 0. 2 0. -0. 2 0. 0 0. 2 0. 4 Lower bound of commodity import price effect (20% oil, 10% metals) Upper bound of commodity import price effect (40% oil, 10% metals) Lower bound of non-commodity import price effect (1%) Upper bound of non-commodi ty import price effect (2%) Lower bound of net effect Upper bound of net effect Range of possible impact These estimates are for given labour costs. To the extent that globalisation also affected labour cost growth, the net implicit disinflationary impact of globalisation may be even higher. 25 Concluding comments and issues for discussion [1] Globalisation is clearly affecting labour market outcomes in the OECD, and also domestic price inflation. Can the various impacts can be expected to persist for some time? The existing impact appears modest – will it rise in the future? Estimating underlying inflationary pressures is more complicated: Globalisation affects commodity and non-commodity prices The flatter Phillips curve raises the difficulties of identifying where the economy is relative to potential. Does this have implications for the conduct of monetary policy? 26 Concluding comments and issues for discussion [2] Globalisation raises the need for labour market flexibility (job reallocation) but also raises fears about job insecurity and widening earnings inequality. What are the appropriate policies to deal with these concerns? Enhancing potential job creation and labour market adjustment: greater product market competition reduced employment protection legislation Education/training policies to equip workers with general skills Direct adjustment assistance to displaced workers: Transitional income support (and health coverage) Full occupational pension portability Active labour market programmes for updating skills and improving job search. 27 The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essay Example The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essay The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Nigel Pain, Isabell Koske OECD Meeting of Heads of National Economic Research Organisations at OECD Headquarters June 15 2007, Paris. Over the past decades international economic integration has proceeded rapidly. Trade in Goods and Services Exports plus imports to GDP (current US$) Foreign Direct Investment Assets plus liabilities to GDP (current US$) 300% 250% 200% 150% 100% 50% World OECD 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% OECD World Non-OECD Non-OECD 0% 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 0% 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Globalisation has been proceeding for many years. The pace of economic integration has been particularly marked since the mid1990s – suggesting structural changes in the impact may have occurred. 2 2 New developments that may have affected the impact of globalisation on OECD economies The marked increase in the extent and pace of integration since the mid-1990s The integration of China and India into the global economy – significantly boosting global labour supply Development of international production networks: the fragmentation of production across borders via international outsourcing and offshoring; international trade in tasks Foreign competition spreading into previously sheltered sectors and occupations via ICT-enabled offshoring and market entry. Financial globalisation Such developments, common to all OECD economies, have prompted a re-assessment of the impact of globalisation. Globalisation now affects particular tasks and occupations as 3 3 well as firms/sectors. The Globalisation and Structural Adjustment Project 2005-07 This had three main components: The macroeconomic effects of globalisation labour markets, inflation, policy challenges from the future evolution of globalisation. The sectoral impact of trade on labour markets The effects of the outsourcing of business services The project examined the policy challenges from: The spread of global trade production networks and IT-enabled global sourcing. The impact of non-OECD economies on commodity markets and competition pressures in the OECD. Financial globalisation. A final report was provided to Ministers in May 2007 4 4 We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The current phase of globalisation has coincided with structural reforms in OECD labour markets The impact of globalisation is occurring against a background of widespread reforms to labour market institutions (see the Restated OECD Jobs Strategy) – for example: Reductions in product market and labour market regulations Activation of the unemployed Increased responsiveness of wage setting to supply/demand pressures Reductions in tax wedges All these affect wage and employment outcomes. Other things being equal, they should have acted to reduce structural unemployment. Attempts to quantify the impact of globalisation have to allow for other (potentially endogenous) sources of structural change. 5 5 The labour share of GDP has fallen, but real wages have grown robustly in most OECD countries. Labour Income Shares 0. 7 0. 65 0. 6 0. 55 0. 5 0. 45 0. 4 1980 1 2 OECD economies (weighted average) Real Compensation per Employee 150 140 OECD1 USA JPN FRA 110 100 DEU 1980 1 Income share of labour 1 130 120 Income share of employees2 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Dependent employees and self-employed. Dependent employees (private and government sectors). Weighted average; country coverage varies according to data availability. The decline in the labour share began before the mid-1990s. In accounting terms, the labour share decline is due to labour productivity rising faster than real wages. 6 6 Real wage growth over the past decade is not correlated with trade openness. 5% 4% GRC POL ISL CZE NOR TUR PRT SWE GBR USA FIN DNK NZL KOR AUS CAN FRA CHE AUT JPN ESP DEU ITA MEX SVK HUN IRL BEL NLD Real wage growth1 3% 2% 1% 0% -1% -2% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160% Trade openness2 1Annual averages, 1995 to most recent observation. 2Exports plus imports to GDP, average 1995 – 2006. 7 Real wage growth was somewhat stronger in countries where openness rose the fastest. 5% 4% GRC NOR PRT SWE ISL POL CZE HUN Real wage growth1 3% TUR IRL SVK GBR 2% USA NZL DNK FIN KOR FRA AUS CAN BEL 1% AUT CHE NLD JPN DEU 0% ITA ESP -1% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% MEX LUX 12% Change in trade openness2 averages, 1995 to most recent observation. 2Percenta ge point change in the ratio of exports plus imports to GDP, average 1995 – 2006. 1Annual 8 8 Despite real wage growth, earnings inequality has risen, especially in the top half of the distribution. Earnings inequality in OECD countries P90, P50, and P10 denote the 90th, 50th, and 10th percentiles of the distribution of earnings for full-time employees. Source: OECD Employment Outlook (2007), forthcoming. Wages of more skilled workers have risen relative to those of less skilled workers, though not in all countries. This is one source of political concerns about globalisation. 9 9 Possible labour market impacts of trade and international production networks Lower-skilled tasks can be moved to lower (unit) cost locations potential productivity gains for domestic industries rising trade will coincide with rising skill-related premia Substitution of employment between home and host locations is more likely for cost-saving investments and the larger the host relative to the home country. Possible implications include: Domestic labour demand is more sensitive to domestic wages Employment adjusts more rapidly to changes in desired labour demand (via output, real labour costs, technical change etc. ) Firms have an exit option which, even if not exercised, raises the relative bargaining power of employers. Impact on wage bargains will depend on the preferences of those involved the level at which bargaining takes place. 10 10 Foreign affiliate employment rose relative to domestic employment between 1992-2003 in all sectors in the G3 Ratio of U. S. Foreign Affiliate Employment to Employment in the U. S. (%) Business Services Financial Services Telecoms Transportation Trade Transport Equipment Electrical Optical Machinery Metals Chemicals Pulp Paper Textiles Food, Beverages Tobacco 0. 0 10. 0 20. 0 30. 0 40. 0 50. 0 60. 0 70. 0 2003 1992 There are marked differences across sectors. The data for Japan and Germany show a similar pattern to the US. 11 11 Empirical evidence from the GSA project (and IMF work) suggests globalisation is affecting the labour market. No evidence of aggregate impact on employment levels or growth. Globalisation is one factor contributing to the decline in the labour income share and the rising returns for skilled workers. But it only accounts for a small part of these trends. Technological change and changes in labour market institutions are more important. Evidence for some industries, especially in manufacturing, that globalisation raises the wage elasticity of labour demand: Outward FDI raises the long-run wage elasticity of labour demand (0. 8%1. 0%) Trade raises the short-run wage elasticity of labour demand (0. 2% in mid1980s 0. % early 2000s) For the US, employment growth in US-owned foreign affiliates has positive correlation with employment at home; for Japan, the correlation is negative (controlling for sales and costs). 12 12 Globalisation also has positive effects on productivity levels and growth in OECD economies. Greater specialisation in areas of comparative advantage. Better access to foreign kno wledge (inward and outward FDI). Using intermediate inputs produced offshore may boost home productivity growth (Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg, 2006) Benefits of enhanced competitive pressure in product markets. The OECD Growth Project found that a 10% pt increase in trade openness was associated with a 4% rise in income per capita. Work for GSA (for 9 global regions) found that enhanced openness raises the rate of convergence of GDP per capita to US levels. Labour market work for GSA found evidence that outward FDI and the international outsourcing of intermediate inputs can raise productivity in home economies. 13 Summary of labour market impacts of globalisation (from trade and FDI – migration will add to these) Globalisation is associated with rising living standards The benefits are not shared automatically by all workers Globalisation is one factor generating structural change The ongoing globalisation process is one factor helping to dampen wage inflation and reduce the labour income share. These may be one-time changes, albeit prolonged. The higher wage elasticity of labour demand raises potential gains in employment from labour-market reforms, but also raises the potential volatility of workers labour market outcomes. Labour market developments are becoming more closely linked with those in other countries. One channel for global factors to influence domestic cost growth. Increasingly important to put policies in place to help labour market adjustment in OECD economies. 14 There are reasons to believe that the labour market challenges could increase further. Vertical multinationals production fragmentation become more likely as trade and communication costs fall and as location becomes possible in countries with different factor endowments. China India have significant reserves of underemployed labour. OECD estimates suggest that up to 20% of occupations in the major economies are potentially offshorable (high ICT content). 15 Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures wage growth. 15 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 15 10 5 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 0 0. 5 1 Unemployment Gap (in %) 1. 5 2 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 10 30 Japan ?Total Compensation 25 per Employee (in %) 20 15 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 -2 -1 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 Unemployment Gap (in %) 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 Euro Area United Kingdom 16 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures unit cost growth. 15 ? ULC (in %) 15 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 30 25 20 15 ?ULC (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? ULC (in %) Japan ?ULC (in %) 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5 -2 -1 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 -1 -0. 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 5 6 7 Euro Area United Kingdom 17 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures inflation. 15 ? PCP (in %) 15 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 0 0. 5 1 Unemployment Gap (in %) 1. 5 2 ? PCP (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? PCP (in %) 30 25 20 15 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 -2 -1 10 5 0 Japan ?PCP (in %) 10 0 -1 -0. 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Euro Area United Kingdom 18 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the relationship between labour market pressures inflation. The short-run Phillips curve has become more horizontal over time, both for labour costs and for price inflation. Also apparent using the change rather than the level of inflation. Movements in the unemployment (and output) gap have smaller effects on inflation than before. This can reflect many factors – globalisation, other structural labour market changes, better anchored inflation expectations and changes in monetary policy frameworks. The flattening of the Phillips curve began before globalisation accelerated in the mid-1990s: Better anchored inflation expectations may be more important. The role of globalisation is an empirical matter. Competition could even make prices more responsive to activity. 19 The impact of globalisation on price inflation is examined in Pain, Koske and Sollie (2006). The analysis has three steps: Calculation of the direct impact of rising lower-cost imports from emerging economies on inflation rates in selected OECD economies using a simple accounting framework. Analysis of the impact of global economic conditions on oil and non-oil commodity prices. Empirical analysis of the wider impact of globalisation on consumer prices in 21 OECD economies, over 1980-2005 Test whether inflation dynamics changed in the mid-1990s. Quantification of the impact of globalisation on prices and inflation through a scenario analysis that distinguishes the impact of non-commodity and commodity import prices. 20 [1] Main findings of the accounting analysis: The combined impact effect of lower-cost imports from China and other dynamic Asian economies has reduced domestic inflation by 0. percentage points per annum in the United States (from 1996 to 2005); by 0. 3 percentage points per annum in the euro area (from 2000 to 2005). Calculations from a number of studies (Federal Reserve, ECB) suggest that imports from lower cost producers have pushed down non-commodity import price inflation by between 1 and 2 percentage points per annum over the last decade. 21 [2] Gl obalisation and commodity prices: empirical results. Strong GDP growth in the non-OECD economies since 2000 has been an important factor behind the recent growth of real oil prices and real metals prices. A scenario analysis of setting the growth rate of non-OECD economies equal to the (lower) growth rate of the OECD economies from 2000 onwards reveals that oil prices would have been 20-40% lower than the baseline in the fourth quarter of 2005; real metals prices would have been 10% lower than the baseline. This removes some, but not all of the strong growth in oil and metals prices over recent years. 22 [3] The price equation estimated jointly (SUR) for 21 OECD countries using quarterly data for 1980-2005 is: ? ln P = ? + i,t 0i ? ? SH M SH ? ln P ? M ? [1 ? M ln P ] ln C ? ? 1i ? i,t ? 1 1i i, t ? 1 i, t ? 1 1i i,t ? 1 i,t ? 1 ? ? 4 4 4 M + ? ? ? ln P C + ? GAP + ? ? ji ? ln Pi,t ? j + ? ? ji ? ln Pi,t ? j +? ji i,t ? j 3i i,t ? 1 it j =1 j=0 j =0 P, PM and C denote consumer prices (CED), import prices of goods plus services and domestic unit labour costs MSH denotes the import share of domestic demand (rolling regressions without this term showed a rise in ? 1 over time) GAP is th e domestic output gap Cross-equation parameter restrictions imposed if data permits ? 1 found to be significantly larger from 1995Q1 onwards 23 3] The impact of globalisation on price inflation The long-run influence of import prices on domestic consumer prices has risen since the mid-1990s. This reflects two factors: a rise in import penetration in OECD economies; the impact of import competition on competitors’ prices. The impact of import prices on domestic consumer prices is larger in small open economies. The cyclical sensitivity of inflation to domestic economic conditions declined between 1981-1994 and 1995-2005. No robust significant additional impact from the global output gap. Global conditions are already reflected in import prices). The separate commodity and consumer price findings are combined in a set of scenario analyses. These show that ex-ante inflationary pressures in most OECD economies would have been moderately higher in the absence of globalisation 24 Impact on consumer price inflation from removing globalisation effects 2000-05. Average percentage point difference per annum Commodity . Non-commodity Component . component . Japan Canada OECD United States United Kingdom Germany France Euro Area Italy Net effect -0. 4 -0. 2 0. 0 0. 2 0. -0. 2 0. 0 0. 2 0. 4 Lower bound of commodity import price effect (20% oil, 10% metals) Upper bound of commodity import price effect (40% oil, 10% metals) Lower bound of non-commodity import price effect (1%) Upper bound of non-commodi ty import price effect (2%) Lower bound of net effect Upper bound of net effect Range of possible impact These estimates are for given labour costs. To the extent that globalisation also affected labour cost growth, the net implicit disinflationary impact of globalisation may be even higher. 25 Concluding comments and issues for discussion [1] Globalisation is clearly affecting labour market outcomes in the OECD, and also domestic price inflation. Can the various impacts can be expected to persist for some time? The existing impact appears modest – will it rise in the future? Estimating underlying inflationary pressures is more complicated: Globalisation affects commodity and non-commodity prices The flatter Phillips curve raises the difficulties of identifying where the economy is relative to potential. Does this have implications for the conduct of monetary policy? 26 Concluding comments and issues for discussion [2] Globalisation raises the need for labour market flexibility (job reallocation) but also raises fears about job insecurity and widening earnings inequality. What are the appropriate policies to deal with these concerns? Enhancing potential job creation and labour market adjustment: greater product market competition reduced employment protection legislation Education/training policies to equip workers with general skills Direct adjustment assistance to displaced workers: Transitional income support (and health coverage) Full occupational pension portability Active labour market programmes for updating skills and improving job search. 27